Political Science and International Relations

Comment on the Idea of Natural Rights. UPSC 2015 Paper 1A Qn1a Rights, as social claims, create conditions necessary for the development of human personality. The social contract theory proposed by contractualists like Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, and J. J. Rousseau holds the view that natural rights are not granted by the state, but they come from the very nature of man, his own intrinsic being. Natural rights were essential properties of men as men. The contractualists, therefore declared that the rights are inalienable, imprescriptible, and indefeasible. If the state failed to maintain these rights, the man had the right to overthrow the government and set up a new government. For Locke, the rights are derived from the state of nature. They constitute the basis of the principles of governance.  The teleological view of rights,  which seeks to relate the rights of man with the purpose of human life , says that the rights to liberty, property security, and resistance t...

Examine the challenges to the sovereignty of the State in the contemporary world. UPSC 2015 Paper 1A Qn 2a The concept of sovereignty is increasingly contested in the contemporary global order. Internal challenges to the sovereignty of the state came from the growing authority of various groups and associations. External challenges to sovereignty came from the international environment due to political, economic, technological, and social transformations. Challenges to the Sovereignty of State - Role of Power Blocs - In the past, any state could manage its defense by organizing its military power and by entering into alliances with other friendly states.  Superpowers created very big military alliances with their own nuclear weapons and Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles (ICBMs), and no nation-state remained capable of providing for the effective security of its citizens by conventional means. Globalization and economic interdependence-  The...

Discuss the Feminist theory of State. UPSC 2016 Paper 1A Qn. 2b Comment on the Feminist critique of the State. UPSC 2021 Paper 1A Qn. 1a Feminist theory of State focuses on two crucial aspects of the nature of the state - State as an instrument of regulation of the public sphere State as an instrument of power  Liberal Feminism -  Liberal Feminists see the state as a potential tool for promoting gender equality through reforms like anti-discrimination laws, education policies, and voting rights. They advocate for women's equality, and they push for reforms to allow women to work outside the home. Critics of liberal feminism argue that this view overlooks deeper structural inequalities. Radical Feminism: Radical feminists argue that the state inherently supports patriarchal power. Thinkers such as Kate Millett and Andrea Dworkin suggest that patriarchy permeates all aspects of state institutions, making reforms insufficient for genuine liberation. Kate...

Comment on the Post-Behavioural approach . UPSC 2016 Paper 1A Qn no 1b The post-behavioral approach emerged in the late 1960s as a critique of the traditional behavioral approach that uses normative methods to analyze the issues. A shift from Pure Science to Applied Science - By the end of 1960 exponents of Behavioralism realized that its strict adherence to 'pure science' was responsible for its failure to attend to the pressing social and political issues. Key aspects of the post-behavioral approach - Value-Oriented Research - Post-behavioralists stress the importance of studying the issues relevant to societal change. Scientists adopted a rational interest in value construction and application and aimed their study at satisfying social needs and problem-solving. It emphasizes the need for research to address real-world problems, such as poverty, discrimination, or human rights, rather than being purely theoretical. It saw a shift of focus fro...

Feminist approach to international politics is biased. Comment. UPSC 2014 Paper 2A - Qn 1d Women, in the west emerged as a distinct interest group in the early 19th century because of the democratic revolutions of the 17th century and the industrial revolution.  Institutionalization of male dominance over women across all institutions of society, according to Gerda Lerner, does not mean that every individual man is always in a dominant position and that every individual woman is always in a subordinate position. So, feminists in international politics rather than talking in a neutral tone would talk keeping the women's interest in mind. They take the platform of international politics as a medium to advance women's issues. Feminists recognize that women are placed in an inferior position in society and that this hierarchy is based on gender.  It is deliberate that it focuses on the socially constructed roles that ‘women’ occupy in world politics. Over 1 to 3% of the wo...

Do you agree that the U.N. has failed to contain transnational terrorism? Elaborate your answer with examples. UPSC 2014 Paper 2A Qn 1c The United Nations adopted Security Council Resolution No. 1373 in the wake of the attack on the World Trade Center in 2001 to curb the spread of international terrorism. UN's efforts in Countering terrorism - The creation of the Counter-Terrorism Committee (CTC) and the UN Office of Counter-Terrorism (UNOCT) demonstrates the institutional focus on combating terrorism through policy recommendations and technical assistance. The UN General Assembly's Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy (2006) emphasizes a multi-pronged approach that includes preventive measures, law enforcement, and capacity-building. It aims to tackle root causes like radicalization and extremism. Sanctions - The Al-Qaeda Sanctions Committee established in 1999 has made it more difficult for terrorists to access funding. Failures and Limitations - Fragmented enfo...

The party  system in India is neither Western nor indigenous. Explain . UPSC 2014 Paper 2A Qn 1a The party system in India is described as neither entirely Western nor fully indigenous because it embodies a unique hybrid structure, blending elements of both imported models and native socio-political realities. It reflects the nation's diverse socio-cultural conditions, its historical evolution, and the need to reconcile modern democratic principles with traditional forms of organization and governance. Western influence on the Indian Party system - India's party system is adopted based on the inspiration of the British Parliamentary system. India owes features like free and fair elections, democratic governance, etc., to the British. However, it is later adapted to fit the local needs. Morris Jones termed Indian democracy as "the third world model", suggesting that while it is inspired by the British model, it functions under conditions that pay attention not...

Political theory is not an escape mechanism but an arduous calling…John Plamenatz. UPSC 2014 Paper 1A Qn 1a The statement, 'Political theory is not an escape mechanism but an arduous calling', implies that political theory is not an escape from politics but a rigorous intellectual endeavor that demands critical engagement with the moral, philosophical, and intellectual dimensions of political life. It demands real-world implications. 'Not an escape mechanism' critiques the tendency to view political theory as abstract, irrelevant, or disconnected from lived experiences and political action. It challenges the notion that theorists engage in detached exercises, removed from the complexities of political power, social struggles, and ethical dilemmas. Political theory, therefore, is not a luxury for intellectuals to escape the messy realities of politics but an essential tool for grappling with them. Thinkers like Karl Marx emphasized that theory should aim to transfo...

Examine the conception of the state in the ideologies of Marxism and Fascism. UPSC 2014 Paper 1A Qn 3b A state is a political entity with a defined territory, a permanent population, a government, and the capacity to enter into relations with other states. The state is the primary unit of political organization in the modern world. State according to Marxian perspective - Marxist theory of state emerged as a reaction against liberalism.  According to Marxists, the state is the product of class society i.e., of the economically dominant class. So, the state is considered a partisan and a class institution. Being a partisan institution, it serves as an instrument of exploitation. The type of society explains the type of state i.e., society provided the base on which the state stood as the superstructure. Establishment of a communist state according to Marx - The dictatorship of the proletariat is considered the abolition of the opposing antagonistic classes and not the...

Examine the conditions that are required for the maintenance of legitimacy in modern societies. UPSC 2014 Paper 1a - Qn 2b The strength of a governing structure is based on legitimation.  Legitimacy is crucial for the maintenance of stability, ensuring compliance, and fostering trust between citizens and institutions. The nature of legitimacy has evolved from traditional or charismatic sources toward legal-rational frameworks and requires several interlocking conditions to be upheld. Conditions required for the maintenance of legitimacy in modern societies - Legal-rational authority - According to Max Weber, legal-rational authority ensures that power is exercised according to transparent rules and procedures rather than arbitrary decisions. Legitimation makes power a lawful authority. Authority possesses power because legitimation authorizes it to exercise power. Legitiation is the means through which power changes into authority and thus, a social order is ...

How has Rawls enriched the idea of justice in liberalism? UPSC 2021 Paper 1A Qn 2a John Rawls's emphasis on minimal state intervention , and priority of justice over utility reflects his commitment to pluralism and neutrality, and his focus on fairness, equality, and moral foundations brought egalitarianism into his concept of justice. His concept of the original position under the veil of ignorance ensured impartiality, as individuals, unaware of their place in society, would adopt principles that guarantee fairness for all. His liberal conception of justice - Justice as fairness - Unlike classical liberalism, which only talks about the protection of individual liberties, Rawls emphasized fairness in the distribution of goods. This led to the introduction of a normative dimension - which says institutions should safeguard individual rights and ensure that inequalities are justifiable. His emphasis on justice over utility ensured that...

Analyze John Rawls's justification of discrimination to achieve the goals of justice. UPSC 2018 Paper 1A Qn 2b John Rawls in his 'A Theory of Justice', addresses the complex relationship between equality, justice, and permissible forms of discrimination. Through his concept of justice, Rawls aims to balance fairness and equality by accommodating differences among individuals in ways that promote social welfare. In Rawlsian theory, justice does not demand strict equality in all social and economic arrangements. His difference principle allows for discrimination and permissible inequalities if they satisfy two conditions - Inequalities must improve the situation of the least advantaged members of the society. Positions associated with these inequalities must be open to all under conditions of fair equality of opportunity, ensuring that all individuals have genuine access to opportunities, irrespective of their background. His difference princi...

Elitist theory of democracy denies the possibility of democracy as 'rule of the people '. Elucidate. UPSC 2022 Paper 1A Qn 2c Democracy as a form of government rests the ultimate authority of governance in ordinary people. However, the elitist theory of government fundamentally negated the government of the people and brought to the front a small minority of elites who actually exercise power in governance. Gaetano Mosca subscribed to elitist theory of democracy by postulating that people are divided into two groups i.e., the rulers and the ruled. Through the concept of the 'iron law of oligarchy', Robert Michel propounded that every organization irrespective of its aims and objectives tends to reduce to oligarchy as the elite class shows the highest ability to leadership. Joseph Schumpeter notices that the role of people is reduced to choosing their rulers from the competing elite. However, Karl Mannheim argues that society has not yet ceased to be democratic...

John Stuart Mill is a 'reluctant democrat'. - C. L. Wayper.  UPSC 2018 Paper 1A Qn 1a John Stuart Mill believed that citizens develop intellectual qualities of reason and judgment through political participation.  Although Mill championed Liberty, Women's political rights, and a representative form of government, C. L. Wayper referred to Mill as a reluctant democrat as -   He focused on the arbitrary concepts of civilizational advancements and educational standards of people to extend the luxury of democracy to the people of colonial societies of Asia and Africa. Instead, he advocated for an aristocratic rule as he believed people were Barbaric. Though direct democracy is the best form of government, due to the complexities of societies, representative democracy, the second best form of government became unavoidable. Inspired by De Tocqueville's Democracy in America, he introduced  Weighted and plural voting for educated and rich people as opposed to Benth...

Differentiate between Freedom and Liberty. Discuss Marx's notion of freedom. UPSC 2017 Paper 1A Qn 3c Difference between Freedom and Liberty  - // Freedom belongs to the personal sphere and liberty belongs to the social and political sphere. Freedom is the absence of restraints allowing individuals to act according to their own will. Isaiah Berlin distinguishes between positive and negative liberty which deals with the individual sphere i.e., freedom to self-realization and freedom from external interference. Liberty often emphasizes the relationship between individuals and society, focusing on the legal and political framework that enables or restricts certain freedoms. Locke defines liberty as the right to act within the bounds of law. Liberty is morally enlightening. Libertarians seek to maximize the realm of individual freedom and so to minimize those actions which are regarded as the license. Libertarians such as Robert Nozick and Milton Friedman have seen freedom ...

The concept of liberty and equality conflict with or complement each other depending on how they are defined. The two concepts show a conflicting relationship as the resources are scarce and the nature of their distribution. When equality is understood as equality of outcome and liberty as freedom to choose they come into conflicting terms with each other. Liberty creates the conditions necessary for achieving equality in two key ways: Liberty is considered a precondition for equality because, without fundamental freedoms, individuals cannot access opportunities that ensure substantive equality. J.S. Mill emphasized the importance of personal freedoms such as freedom of thought and expression as they enable individuals to contest unjust social structures . Without these liberties, marginalized groups cannot demand equal rights or participate in the political process, which is crucial for establishing equality. Isaiah Berlin distinguished bet...

John Rawls' difference Principle  John Rawls's difference principle is a subordinate to his Liberty principle. The lexical order of his principles of justice ensures liberties not sacrificed for economic gains. His difference principle works in tandem with fair equality of opportunity to create a framework in which everyone has a chance to succeed and the worst-off are protected from excessive hardship. Difference principle reflects the Rawls's belief that while perfect equality may not be achievable, disparities are acceptable if they incentivize productive activities that benefit everyone, including the poorest members of the society. It embodies equality based reciprocity i.e., inequalities are good for the worst off. However, t he difference principle does not allow the rich to get richer at the expense of poor. Difference principle allows inequalities of wealth and income, so long these will be to everyone's advantage specifically to the advantage of those ...

Entitlement Theory of Justice The entitlement theory of justice, developed by Robert Nozick in his book Anarchy, State and Utopia (1974), offers a libertarian perspective on distributive justice. Nozick challenges redistributive theories of justice by defending minimal state interference. The entitlement theory of justice provides a framework for understanding justice regarding the legitimate acquisition, transfer, and rectification of holdings. Principles of entitlement theory - Justice in Acquisition - Nozick suggests that individuals can claim ownership over previously unowned things if they appropriate them without worsening the condition of others. Justice in Transfer - Nozick emphasizes on the legitimacy of the ownership of transferred property. He says the legitimacy of ownership depends on whether past transfers followed just transfer. He does not emphasize on the distribution of wealth. Justice in Rectification - Nozic...

Qn. John Locke is the father of liberalism. Explain. Locke has traditionally been considered the father of liberal democracy for his advocacy of individual rights, limited government, natural rights, two-stage theory of social contract and for his profound influence on modern democracies. Locke claims that government must be limited since the relationship between itself and the citizen is reciprocal. He roots sovereignty in society. Locke considers, "the great and chief end of men's putting themselves under government is the preservation of property  i.e., preservation of 'Lives, Liberties and Estates'". Locke considers liberty as a property right because to have property in one's person implies the right to think, speak, and act freely. Locke proposes a constitutionally limited government to ensure that the government does not violate people's property rights - their lives, liberties, and possessions. Rational human beings would not logically consent to a...

Substantive Democracy Substantive democracy unlike procedural democracy where socio-economic differences could potentially hamper people's participation, emphasizes the depth and quality of democratic governance and extends its focus on the actual outcomes and practices that ensure the realization of true democratic values. It aims to promote equitable representation, protect individual rights, and foster social justice. Substantive democracy ensures that political power is exercised in a way that genuinely reflects the will of the people, with special attention to marginalized sections. While liberal democracy is identified as 'political democracy', substantive democracy is described as 'economic democracy' or 'social democracy'.  Economic power is recognized as key political power. Socialism sustains the primacy of social-economic rights and it makes elaborate arrangements to provide for employment, education, housing, medical care, and recreation faci...

Representative Democracy Representative democracy, as a form of governance, is grounded in the delegation of decision-making authority from the citizenry to the elected officials. It reflects the tension between popular sovereignty and the need for practical governance in complex, large-scale societies. Features of Representative Democracy - Authority is delegated to intermediaries or representatives whose task is to translate public preferences into policy outcomes. Necessity to delegate powers is felt as the governance grew complex with societies. Elected officials derive their legitimacy from the consent of the governed, expressed through periodic, free, and fair elections. The legitimacy is contingent on the fairness of the electoral process, including universal suffrage and secret ballots and equal access to voting. Accountability and transparency of the representatives is enforced through electoral mechanisms and institutional checks and balances. Representative d...

Deliberative Democracy Deliberative democracy represents a framework for democratic governance that privileges reasoned debate and collective decision-making . Deliberation, thus, reinvents the participatory model of democracy. The concept of deliberative democracy embodies an attempt to reconcile two different models of democratic thought: "Democracy as a popular rule" and "Democracy as the bulwark of personal freedom" . Deliberative democracy then aims to strike a balance between personal freedom and popular rule. It should be used as a means of encouraging public deliberation on issues that are best understood through open, deliberative processes. Deliberative democracy provides for a reasoned justification. Participants are not merely expressing preferences or interests but are expected to provide reasoned justifications. The quality of deliberation depends on the strength of reason which must appeal to the principles of justice. Legitimacy is derived from...

Participatory Democracy  Jean Jacques Rousseau, the exponent of popular sovereignty asserted that sovereignty not only originates in the people, it is also retained by the people despite the transition from the state of nature to civil society. D emocracy is a system that rests the ultimate authority to govern , with the people themselves. But in representative democracies, the participation of people diminishes after choosing their representatives till the next general elections. It became a rule of the elite class in which ordinary citizens play a very limited role at regular intervals. Political participation is a manifestation of a strong awareness of public interest. Justifying the instrumental features of democracy, Rousseau correlated freedom to democracy. Freedom for Rousseau is the individual's pursuit of self-interest. He articulated a positive notion of freedom i.e., individuals are free only when they participate directly, actively, and continuously in shapi...

Discuss the 'crisis of legitimacy' in capitalist societies. (Habermas) UPSC 2015 Paper 1A - Qn 4a Marxists perceived legitimacy as a bourgeoise myth and concluded that legitimacy could not be achieved in conditions of inequality. However, Habermas admitted that liberal democracies have a system to generate consent and support from the people. According to him, the democratic system, the party system, social and welfare reforms, etc. play a key role in maintaining the legitimacy of the state. But, he also noticed that it is hard to maintain legitimacy in a biased political system that produces sustained unequal class power. Habermas in his work, 'Legitimation Crisis (1973)' noticed that c risis tendencies emerged in liberal democracies as a result of the contradiction between capitalist accumulation and populist demands.  Democracies put pressure on the state to expand its social responsibilities and raise demands for social welfare provisions.  As the social wel...

Critically examine John Rawls' argument for democratic equality. UPSC 2016 Paper 1A - Qn 2c John Rawls' argument for democratic equality is a powerful moral and philosophical framework aimed at balancing individual liberties with social justice. His conception of democratic equality combines two core principles: the equal basic liberties principle and the difference principle. Equal basic liberties - each person has an equal right to the most extensive total system of equal basic liberties compatible with a similar system of liberty for all. Difference principle and Fair Equality of Opportunity - Economic and Social inequalities are justifiable only if they benefit the least advantaged. His concept of fair equality of opportunity requires compensation for inequalities in social background. These are integrated to ensure that a fair system of cooperation can exist within a democratic society. Collectivists criticized Rawl...

J.S. Mill's ideas on women's suffrage . UPSC 2021 Paper 1A - Qn 1e In the medieval and early modern periods in Europe, the right to vote was severely limited for all people by age, ownership of property, and gender. Mill tried to reconcile the principle of political equality with individual liberty. Liberty improves the moral and mental powers of human beings.  The rights of citizenship, makes individual a social person and gives both political freedom and responsibility. Mill stated that every individual must be allowed a say in controlling the government and thus be allowed to protect his/her interests. He asserted, that the only purpose for which power can be rightfully exercised over any member of a civilized community against his will, is to prevent harm to others.  On this basis, Mill demanded women be given the right to vote.  He objected to women being prevented by law to compete and contribute to society. In granting the right to vote, Mill hoped that women...

Globalization promotes the increasing interaction of the inhabitants. Globalization is the process of integrating the national economy, culture, technology, and even governance into a global system.  The other side provided the insight into straining State sovereignty. State sovereignty has never been absolute except legally. Questions were raised regarding the state sovereignty. Aspects pointed out by David Held -  Government's effectiveness of particular instruments has shown a decline with increase on global connectedness. Border controls have lessened. Expansion in transnational forces and interactions which reduce the influence a particular governments can exercise over the citzens. The domains such as defence and communication cannot be fulfilled without resorting to international forms of collaboration. Political integration is necessary among states to control the destabilising effects of the states. Vast number of institutions and organisations for global governance l...

Greek perspective of Justice emphasizes on the role of virtue, hierarchy and harmony within a structured social order. It emphasized on the individual’s role to establish a just society. In Greek perspective, we will study Plato's and Aristotle's concepts of justice.  Justice evolved as a 'progressive idea'. The modern views of justice seeks to transform society itself for the realization of certain human values. Rawlsian justice system prioritizes fairness and equality (distributive justice) and emphasizes on the state role to establish just and fair conditions for individual to mitigate arbitrary inequalities. A comparative assessment of Greek perspective of Justice to Rawlsian concept of Justice - Concept of Justice -  Richard Lewis Nettleship, in his 'Lectures on the Republic of Plato' (1962), has elucidated, 'Justice in Plato's sense, is the power of individual concentration on duty.' Aristotle is concerned with three types of justice: Dis...

All silencing of discussion is an assumption of infallibility. UPSC Paper 1A - Qn - 1b "If all mankind minus one were of one opinion, mankind would be no more justified in silencing that one person than, he if he had the power would be justified in silencing mankind". According to Mill, every individual must be allowed a say in controlling the government and thus given an opportunity to protect his/her interests. Civil participation enhances autonomy and altruism - autonomy from self-government, and altruism from judging the interests of community". Mill emphasized on the significance of freedom of speech in social utility (and self development of a person). According to him, clash of views facilitate impetus for thought, discussion and progress. No person no matter how intelligent is wholly infallible and for Mill, "All silencing of discussion is an assumption of infallibility". According to him, freedom of speech and expression also includes the rig...

Qn. "The legal subordination of one sex to another is wrong in itself, and now one of the chief hindrances to human development." Comment. UPSC 2023 Paper 1A - Qn 4b J. S. Mill's 'The Subjection of Women' begins with the revolutionary statement "The legal subordination..." in reference to the English law of marriage contract. Property rights of women are severely subordinated to male members of family and women had to go through a paradoxical situation in modern age, the principles of liberty and equality were not applied to the condition of women. According to Mill, the reason why women's inequality survived slavery and political absolutism is, in case of slavery, only slave holders and despots are interested but in case of women's subordination, all men are interested. Mill's argument against natural inferiority of women's nature is that he considered inequality as a result of socialisation. Mill showed examples of women's aptitude ...

Instructions - Questions no. 1 and 5 are compulsory and out of the remaining, any THREE are to be attempted choosing at least ONE question from each section. Attempts of questions shall be counted in sequential order. Unless struck off, attempt of a question shall be counted even if attempted partly. Any page or portion of the page left blank in the Question-cum-Answer Booklet must be clearly struck off.                                   PAPER 1 - Section A   1. Answer the following questions in about 150 words each:   (10*5 = 50M)   (a) Discuss the interpretative approach to the study of comparative politics. (b) Explain the central tenets of the World-Systems Theory. (c) The expansionist tendencies of the current Russian regime indicate its intentions for the realisation of a Greater Russia on the lines of the Soviet era. Comment. (d) Explain the various facets ...